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Current Issue
Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment -
Vol. 16 ,
No. 4
| [ Technical Information ] | |
| Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment - Vol. 14, No. 4 | |
| Abbreviation: Asian J. Atmos. Environ | |
| ISSN: 1976-6912 (Print) 2287-1160 (Online) | |
| Print publication date 31 Dec 2020 | |
| Received 11 Aug 2020 Revised 18 Nov 2020 Accepted 09 Dec 2020 | |
| DOI: https://doi.org/10.5572/ajae.2020.14.4.422 | |
| Analysis of the National Air Pollutant Emission Inventory (CAPSS 2016) and the Major Cause of Change in Republic of Korea | |
Seong-woo Choi ; Taekyu Kim ; Hyang-kyeong Lee ; Hyung-cheon Kim ; Jihyun Han ; Kyoung-bin Lee ; Eun-hyouck Lim ; Sang-ho Shin1) ; Hyung-ah Jin2) ; Eugene Cho3) ; Young-min Kim1) ; Chul Yoo*
| |
| Emission Inventory Management Team, National Air Emission Inventory and Research Center, Chungcheongbuk-do, Republic of Korea | |
| 1)Policy Support Team, National Air Emission Inventory and Research Center, Chungcheongbuk-do, Republic of Korea | |
| 2)Air Quality Improvement Bureau, National Council on Climate and Air Quality, Seoul, Republic of Korea | |
| 3)GHG Inventory Management Team, Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Research Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea | |
| Correspondence to : * Tel: +82-(0)43-279-4550 E-mail: s7424yoo@korea.kr | |
Copyright © 2020 by Asian Association for Atmospheric Environment This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. | |
 | |
In 2016, air pollutant emissions in the Republic of Korea were 795,044 metric tons (hereafter tons) of CO, 1,248,309 tons of NOx, 358,951 tons of SOx, 611,539 tons of TSP, 233,085 tons of PM10, 100,247 tons of PM2.5, 16,401 tons of BC, 1,024,029 tons of VOCs, and 301,301 tons of NH3. Including energy production, thirteen emission sources, which comprise the national air pollutant emission inventory, were classified by their characteristics into five sectors (Energy, Industry, Road, Non-road, and Everyday Activities and Other Emission Sources) to analyze their relative contributions to the national emissions. Specifically, their contributions by pollutant were as follows: NOx (11.0%), SOx (21.9%), PM2.5 (3.2%), VOCs (0.8%), NH3 (0.5%) from the energy sector; NOx (20.2%), SOx (59.7%), PM2.5 (42.1%), VOCs (24.3%), and NH3 (14.4%) from the industry sector; NOx (36.3%), SOx (0.1%), PM2.5 (9.7%), VOCs (4.6%), and NH3 (1.7%) from the road sector; NOx (24.8%), SOx (11.5%), PM2.5 (14.3%), VOCs (4.0%), and NH3 (0.04%) from the non-road sector; and NOx (7.6%), SOx (6.7%), PM2.5 (30.6%), VOCs (66.3%), and NH3 (83.4%) from the everyday activities and other emission sources sector. The data we calculate are used as official national emissions data for the establishment, implementation, and assessment of national atmospheric environment policy to improve air quality. As critical and necessary materials, the data are also utilized on a wide range of studies on policies such as customized regional particulate matter reduction measures. Thus, it is crucial to estimate highly reliable national emissions by enhancing the emissions factors and inventory and to establish a scientific emissions testing system by using air quality modeling and satellite data.
| Keywords: CAPSS, Atmospheric pollutants, Particulate matter, Ultrafine particulate matter, National air pollutant emissions |
|
1. INTRODUCTION
Air pollution, including particle pollution is becoming a serious issue worldwide. To be more specific, industrialization has led the world population, traffic, and energy consumption to increase, which is consequently exacerbating air quality. Furthermore, transboundary air pollutants are having an adverse effect not only on polluting countries but also on their neighboring ones (Li et al., 2014). This makes it clear that air pollution arising from such pollutants must be tackled from a global perspective. To improve air quality, Southeastern Asian countries such as South Korea, China, and Japan, are implementing a wide range of policies, which include energy efficiency improvement and reduction of air pollutants emissions (Wang et al., 2014).
Estimating air pollutant emissions data is vital for informing policy and research to improve the atmospheric environment. However, it is a delicate issue due to the various politico-economic interests involved. Nevertheless, these data are needed to establish policies for atmosphere management and to counter climate change and are an important tool for policy setting and outcome assessment.
Looking at the state of emissions in major developed countries, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) compiles and publishes the National Emission Inventory (NEI), focusing on general air pollutants and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Meanwhile, in the European Union, its member states are asked to submit their own emissions data on CO2, CH4, N2O, SO2, NOx, CO, NMVOC, PFCs, and SF6, which are maintained and released by the European Environment Agency (EEA). Most of the members use the standardized CORINAIR system.
In the Republic of Korea, the National Air Emission Inventory and Research Center (hereafter “the NAIR”) estimates the annual emissions of the air pollutants, CO, NOx, SOx, TSP, PM10, PM2.5, BC, VOCs, and NH3, via the Clean Air Policy Support System (CAPSS). To this end, around 300 data points are collected from 150 domestic institutions (as of 2016 emissions). Emissions are calculated by applying the emissions factors and control efficiency for each emission source/fuel to the appropriate activity level for each emission source.
The estimated emissions play the role of the official air pollutants emissions data for the Republic of Korea, which are then used as the basis to establish and analyze the expected effects of policies for air improvement, such as the combined air improvement plan, the basic plan for atmospheric environment management in the capital, special measures against particulate matter, and combined measures to control particular matter. It is also used as input data for air quality prediction models. Thus, alongside air pollution monitoring network data, emissions data are the most important basic data.
In addition, the data are used in the Korean version of Greenhouse Gas - Air pollution Interaction and Synergies (GAINS), an integrated analysis model for climate and air which is widely used in various studies in Europe and Asia (Seong et al., 2019), and also used in building an emission inventory of Southeast Asia, which were cited from the KORUS-AQ (Korea-United States Air Quality) study, a joint research project conducted by the National Institute of Environmental Research in Korea and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Choi et al., 2019; Goldberg et al., 2019; Miyazaki et al., 2019).
In this report, we describe the results of 2016 emissions estimates and analyze the major factors contributing to changes from 2015.
2. METHODS OF ESTIMATION NATIONAL AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
2. 1 Emission Source Classification and Emission Factors
To estimate national air pollutant emissions data, we established an emission source classification system by combining the CORINAIR classification system from Europe with the domestic industrial classification system for air pollutant emission sources. Thus, we classified emission sources into thirteen categories including energy production, non-industry, manufacturing industry, industrial processes, energy transport and storage, solvent use, road transport, nonroad transport, waste, agriculture, other, fugitive dust, and biomass burning. These categories were further classified into 57 subcategories, which were further categorized into 241 subgroups to estimate emissions of CO, NOx, SOx, TSP, PM10, PM2.5, BC, VOC, and NH3.
Emission factors are displayed as emissions per unit activity. Currently, approximately 30,000 emission factors are used in the national emissions estimate. Incidentally, while emission factors developed from research by domestic scientific research institutes such as the National Institute of Environmental Research are primarily used in the estimate, in most cases, the factors from the US EPA and the EU CORNIAIR are used except for a couple of emission sources including vehicles, construction machineries, and combustion facilities (NIER, 2015).
2. 2 Method for Activity Level and Emission Estimation
To estimate national air pollutant emissions, we determined the basic activity level after collecting 300 sets of statistics from approximately 150 institutions related to energy, industry, transport, and meteorology. There are usually three ways to validate those data: comparing the totals of raw data and registered data on the database to identify errors which might have happened when registering data in the first place; studying the previous results regarding the newly collected data and analyzing changes compared to the previous year; and comparing with other similar data.
Based on these basic data established, emissions from each emission source were calculated by applying different calculation methods to different sources. Generally, two approaches were taken to estimate emissions depending on the type of emission source: a bottom-up approach and a top-down approach.
Emissions from point pollution sources were estimated using a bottom-up approach based on data collected from the Stack Emission Management System (SEMS). On the other hand, those from area sources were estimated using a top-down approach based on national statistics on fuel regarding the amount of fuel sales and LNG supply, and coal consumption except for fuel consumed in point pollution sources. Emissions from transport were also estimated by using the top-down approach based on statistics on traffic volume. Incidentally, emission factors by pollutant were taken into account in those estimates. A spatial allocation model was then used for the estimated emissions and regional emissions were estimated based on factors such as SEMS coordinates and addresses for industrial sites and traffic volume for transport, respectively (NIER, 2013).
To perform quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) activities, the NAIR publishes a standard operating procedure (SOP) guide, which covers each stage ranging from collection of activity level data needed to estimate national emissions to validation of them, a handbook on methods for emission estimation, and an information package on emission factors. Arguably, this is necessary to ensure that the estimation methods are consistent and universal and to enhance reliability of the emission inventory (NIER, 2019a).
2. 3 Record of Major Improvements in Emissions
The methodology for estimating air pollutant emissions was reviewed by the National Emissions Data Management Committee of the NAIR based on relevant domestic and overseas research results. Furthermore, past emissions were re-estimated using the latest methodology in the event of major changes in emissions due to the addition of new substances or the discovery of new emission sources in order to ensure the consistency of emission trends analysis. To estimate the national emissions in 2016 in a more accurate manner, several improvements were made to the estimation methods. For example, new PM emissions factors for vehicles on gasoline and LPG multi-point injection (MPI) engines were applied to estimate road transport emissions. Also, new PM emissions factors for two-wheeled vehicles (with four-stroke engines) were applied, and NOx and NH3 emissions factors for small diesel vehicles (Euro 3 and Euro 4 emission standards) were updated to the present 2016 COPERT emission factors. Moreover, new emissions factors for CO, HC, NOx, PM, NH3, and SOx for hybrid vehicles and NOx emissions factors for such diesel vehicles as passenger cars, RVs, freight cars, special cars, and buses (before Euro 3 emission standards), which reflected the actual road driving conditions, were applied as well. When it came to non-road transport emissions, emissions factors for CO, HC, NOx, and PM for construction machineries (2015 model year onwards) reflecting the Tier 4 emission standards were applied.
3. 2016 EMISSIONS ESTIMATES
3. 1 Air Pollutant Emissions
3. 1. 1 Emissions per Substance and Emission Source
Fig. 1.
2016 emission contributions of different emission source categories, per pollutant.
In 2016, the nationwide emissions of air pollutants included 795,044 tons of CO, 1,248,309 tons of NOx, 358,951 tons of SOx, 611,539 tons of TSP, 233,085 tons of PM10, 100,247 tons of PM2.5, 16,401 tons of BC, 1,024,029 tons of VOCs, and 301,301 tons of NH3 (Table 1) (NIER, 2019b).
Table 1.
2016 emissions and the relative contribution of air pollutants per major emission source category. (units: tons/year)
2016 emissions and the relative contribution of air pollutants per major emission source category. (units: tons/year)
| Source category |
CO | NOx | SOx | TSP | PM10 | PM2.5 | BC | VOC | NH3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | |||||||||
| (100%) | (100%) | (100%) | (100%) | (100%) | (100%) | 100%) | (100%) | (100%) | |
| Energy production |
|||||||||
| (7.4%) | (11.7%) | (25.5%) | (0.7%) | (1.7%) | (3.2%) | (2.0%) | (0.8%) | (0.5%) | |
| Non industry | |||||||||
| (8.5%) | (6.9%) | (6.7%) | (0.3%) | (0.6%) | (1.0%) | (1.0%) | (0.3%) | (0.5%) | |
| Manufacturing industry |
|||||||||
| (2.3%) | (14.0%) | (24.1%) | (20.1%) | (30.8%) | (36.7%) | (4.7%) | (0.3%) | (0.2%) | |
| Industrial processes |
|||||||||
| (3.4%) | (4.5%) | (31.4%) | (2.0%) | (2.9%) | (5.2%) | (0.1%) | (18.2%) | (14.1%) | |
| Energy transport and storage |
|||||||||
| (2.9%) | |||||||||
| Solvent use | |||||||||
| (54.5%) | |||||||||
| Road transport | |||||||||
| (30.8%) | (36.3%) | (0.1%) | (1.7%) | (4.5%) | (9.7%) | (36.2%) | (4.6%) | (1.7%) | |
| Non-road transport |
|||||||||
| (17.2%) | (24.8%) | (11.5%) | (2.5%) | (6.7%) | (14.3%) | (41.3%) | (4.0%) | (0.04%) | |
| Waste | |||||||||
| (0.3%) | (1.1%) | (0.6%) | (0.1%) | (0.1%) | (0.3%) | (0.02%) | (5.8%) | (0.01%) | |
| Agriculture | |||||||||
| (78.7%) | |||||||||
| Other | |||||||||
| (0.9%) | (0.01%) | (0.1%) | (0.1%) | (0.3%) | (0.1%) | (0.1%) | (4.3%) | ||
| Fugitive dust | |||||||||
| (67.5%) | (46.2%) | (17.2%) | (0.7%) | ||||||
| Biomass burning | |||||||||
| (29.3%) | (0.7%) | (0.02%) | (5.0%) | (6.3%) | (12.1%) | (13.9%) | (8.6%) | (0.01%) |
*BC: BC(Black Carbon) as EC(Elemental Carbon)
The main emission sources’ proportion of total emissions per pollutant were as follows: road transport (30.8%), biomass burning (29.3%), and non-road transport (17.2%) for CO; road transport (36.3%), non-road transport (24.8%), and manufacturing industry (14.0%) for NOx; industrial processes (31.4%), energy production (25.5%), and manufacturing industry (24.1%) for SOx; fugitive dust (67.5%) and manufacturing industry (20.1%) for TSP; fugitive dust (46.2%) and manufacturing industry (30.8%) for PM10; manufacturing industry (36.7%), fugitive dust (17.2%), and non-road transport (14.3%) for PM2.5; non-road transport (41.3%) and road transport (36.2%) for BC; solvent use (54.5%) and industrial processes (18.2%) for VOCs; and agriculture (78.7%) and industrial processes (14.1%) for NH3 (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
2016 emission contributions of different emission source categories, per pollutant.
3. 1. 2 Analysis on Changes in Emissions compared to the Previous Year
On an annual basis, the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) asks its member states to submit national emissions estimates for CO, NOx, SOx, PM10, PM2.5 and NMVOC (Non-methane Volatile Organic Compounds) from mobile and stationary sources, collects and makes the data public (https://stats.oecd.org/).
Republic of Korea also submits its national emissions estimates based on the CAPSS annually. However, a few emission sources on the domestic classification system are not included in the OECD submission criteria, resulting in gaps between the annual total national emissions estimates and those submitted to the OECD.
Table 2 represents national air pollutant emissions for the OECD member states. According to the OECD, Canada saw a 4.4% decrease in NMVOCs emissions while SOx emissions dropped in the UK (-28.4%), the US (-19.1%), France (-11.7%), and Germany (-7.3%), respectively. Meanwhile, PM2.5 emissions in Republic of Korea and CO emissions in Japan increased by 2.4% and 10.9%, respectively while PM10 and PM2.5 emissions estimates in Japan were not provided with.
Table 2.
National air pollutant emissions for the OECD member states. (unit: 1,000 tons/year)
National air pollutant emissions for the OECD member states. (unit: 1,000 tons/year)
| CO | NOx | SOx | PM10 | PM2.5 | NMVOCs | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | Charge | 2015 | 2016 | Charge | 2015 | 2016 | Charge | 2015 | 2016 | Charge | 2015 | 2016 | Charge | 2015 | 2016 | Charge | ||||||
| United States | 48,107.5 | 43,924.2 | -8.7% | 10,641.4 | 10,152.7 | -4.6% | 3,514.1 | 2,841.9 | -19.1% | 14,950.9 | 14,319.8 | -4.2% | 3,940.0 | 3,786.7 | -3.9% | 12,577.0 | 11,786.7 | -6.3% | |||||
3. 1. 3 Analysis on Changes in Emissions Compared to the Previous Year
Fig. 2.
Emissions in the energy sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
Fig. 3.
Emissions in the industry sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
Fig. 4.
Emissions in the road sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
Fig. 5.
Emissions in the non-road sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
Fig. 6.
Emissions in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
Although air pollutant emissions have been estimated since 1999, directly comparing with past data is difficult due to annual additions of new emission sources or improvements in estimation methods as mentioned above. Since 2007, anthracite coal imports have been added to the emissions estimate, CleanSYS emissions data have been used, and the VOCs’ emission factors have been changed, resulting in large shifts in emissions for the related substances. In 2011, improvements to emission estimates continued to be pursued, with the addition of PM2.5 emissions and new emission sources such as industrial processes, improvement of the car emission factors for transport, and use of control efficiency of oil mist collection facilities in the energy transport and storage category. In 2012, the estimation methodology was improved in the non-road transport (construction machinery) category, and the activity levels of the food and drinks manufacturing (whiskey and other spirits) and VOCs emission factors were improved. In 2014, fishing vessels and leisure boats were added to the ships category, and the methodology for the road sector was also improved, such as using NOx emissions factors that reflected the actual road driving conditions. In 2016, NOx emissions factors for diesel vehicles (before Euro 3 emission standards) were improved by reflecting the actual road driving conditions, and PM emissions factors for MPI gasoline and LPG vehicles were introduced based on research findings.
In this report, the main causes of change in emissions from 2015 to 2016 are analyzed and described by classifying emission sources into five sectors such as Energy, Industry, Road, Non-road, and Everyday Activities and Other Emission Sources based on NOx, SOx, VOCs and NH3 contributing to the formation of primary and secondary PM2.5, as shown in Table 3. Further details on emissions per pollutant by emission source can be found in Appendices.
Table 3.
Emission source classification by sector and category.
Emission source classification by sector and category.
| Source sector | Source category |
|---|---|
| Energy (Oil refinery not included) |
Energy production |
| Industry (Oil refinery included) |
Manufacturing industry Industrial processes Waste Oil refinery |
| Road | Road transport |
| Non-road | Non-road transport |
| Everyday activities and other emission sources |
Non industry Energy transport and storage Solvent use Agriculture Other Fugitive dust Biomass burning |
3. 1. 3. 1 Energy Sector Emissions
The energy sector included emissions from district heat production plants and power plants, and its contributions to the national emissions by pollutant were as follows: NOx (11.0%), SOx (21.9%), PM2.5 (3.2%), VOCs (0.8%), and NH3 (0.5%). To be more specific, emissions of NOx, SOx, and PM2.5 decreased by 3.7% (2015: 143,000 tons → 2016: 137,744 tons), 0.1% (2015: 78,838 tons → 2016: 78,779 tons), and 9.9% (2015: 3,584 tons → 2016: 3,230 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while VOCs and NH3 emissions increased by 8.0% (2015: 7,137 tons → 2016: 7,706 tons) and 17.0% (2015: 1,181 tons → 2016: 1,382 tons), respectively (Table 4 and Fig. 2). There was an increase in fuel consumption; nevertheless, there was an overall decrease in the emissions in this sector due to tighter standards in environmental management for each power plant resulting from domestic issues regarding particulate matter.
Table 4.
Changes in emissions and percentage in the energy sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
Changes in emissions and percentage in the energy sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
| Source sector | Pollutant | Emissions | Change (Emissions) |
Change (Percentage) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | ||||
| Energy | |||||
| NH3 | 1,181 | 1,382 | 201 | 17.0% | |
Fig. 2.
Emissions in the energy sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
The public power generation category’s contributions to the emissions in the energy sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (79.7%), SOx (90.8%), PM2.5 (80.3%), VOCs (62.7%), and NH3 (51.2%). Specifically, emissions of NOx, SOx, and PM2.5 decreased by 5.6% (2015: 116,250 tons → 2016: 109,721 tons), 0.03% (2015: 71,515 tons → 2016: 71,497 tons), and 13.3% (2015: 2,989 tons → 2016: 2,593 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while VOCs and NH3 emissions increased by 7.5% (2015: 4,497 tons → 2016: 4,832 tons) and 27.0% (2015: 557 tons → 2016: 708 tons), respectively. While there were increases in fuel consumption such as bituminous coal and LNG compared to the previous year, the emissions by pollutant decreased because tighter standards in environmental management forced each power plant to use reduction catalysts and to improve desulfurization facilities for NOx and SOx reduction and dust collectors such as electric precipitators (ESP) to remove PM2.5.
The contributions of the private power generation category to the emissions in the energy sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (17.4%), SOx (7.4%), PM2.5 (16.0%), VOCs (29.6%), and NH3 (37.3%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 5.8% (2015: 22,634 tons → 2016: 23,948 tons), 1.1% (2015: 5,791 tons → 2016: 5,856 tons), 4.3% (2015: 496 tons → 2016: 517 tons), 5.2% (2015: 2,169 tons → 2016: 2,282 tons), and 4.2% (2015: 496 tons → 2016: 516 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year. This was the result of increases in consumption of bituminous coal (13.1%, 2015: 5,718 tons → 2016: 6,466 tons) and LNG (4.7%, 2015: 9.429 billion m3 → 2016: 9.876 billion m3) compared to the previous year.
3. 1. 3. 2 Industry Sector Emissions
Emissions in the industry sector were estimated by summing up those in the categories of manufacturing industry, industrial processes, waste, and oil refineries. Overall, this sector’s contributions to the national emissions by pollutant were as follows: NOx (20.2%), SOx (59.7%), PM2.5 (42.1%), VOCs (24.3%), and NH3 (14.4%); emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 1.5% (2015: 248,765 tons → 2016: 252,534 tons), 4.6% (2015: 205,007 tons → 2016: 214,406 tons), 1.4% (2015: 41,682 tons → 2016: 42,251 tons), 2.2% (2015: 243,401 tons → 2016: 248,730 tons), and 7.6% (2015: 40,279 tons → 2016: 43,360 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year (Table 5 and Fig. 3).
Table 5.
Changes in emissions and percentage in the industry sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
Changes in emissions and percentage in the industry sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
| Source sector | Pollutant | Emissions | Change (Emissions) |
Change (Percentage) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | ||||
| Industry | |||||
| NH3 | 40,279 | 43,360 | 3,081 | 7.6% | |
Fig. 3.
Emissions in the industry sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
The contributions of the manufacturing industry category to the emissions in the industry sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (69.4%), SOx (40.4%), PM2.5 (87.1%), VOCs (1.3%), and NH3 (1.5%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 3.7% (2015: 169,139 tons → 2016: 175,332 tons), 1.8% (2015: 85,098 tons → 2016: 86,593 tons), 1.3% (2015: 36,317 tons → 2016: 36,785 tons), 7.8% (2015: 3,101 tons → 2016: 3,342 tons), and 7.1% (2015: 627 tons → 2016: 672 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year. These increases resulted from higher consumption of anthracite coal (6.5%, 2015: 8.383 million tons → 2016: 8.927 million tons) and propane (76.4%, 2015: 3.534 billion m3 → 2016: 6.235 billion m3) by the manufacturing industry compared to the previous years.
The contributions of the industrial processes category to the emissions in the industry sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (22.1%), SOx (52.6%), PM2.5 (12.3%), VOCs (74.8%), and NH3 (98.0%). Compared to the previous year, emissions of NOx saw a decrease of 6.5% (2015: 59,830 tons → 2016: 55,932 tons) while SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions increased by 7.0% (2015: 105,385 tons → 2016: 112,734 tons), 1.2% (2015: 5,132 tons → 2016: 5,191 tons), 1.8% (2015: 182,899 tons → 2016: 186,104 tons), and NH3 7.8% (2015: 39,432 tons → 2016: 42,489 tons), respectively. This was because of a 4.8% increase (2015: 150.862 million kL → 2016: 158.039 million kL) in consumption of crude oil by the petroleum product manufacturing industry in addition to the decreased output of crude steel (0.5%, 2015: 21.170 million tons → 2016: 21.054 million tons) and of sintered products (2.6%, 2015: 61.926 million tons → 2016: 60.328 million tons), respectively, in the iron and steel industry.
The contributions of the waste category to the emissions in the industry sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (5.4%), SOx (1.0%), PM2.5 (0.6%), VOCs (23.7%), and NH3 (0.1%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 13.3% (2015: 11,977 tons → 2016: 13,570 tons), 2.0% (2015: 2,119 tons → 2016: 2,161 tons), 20.3% (2015: 209 tons → 2016: 252 tons), 3.4% (2015: 57,074 tons → 2016: 58,988 tons), and 0.8% (2015: 21.9 tons → 2016: 22.1 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year. This was due to the increased amount of incinerated municipal solid waste (7.3%, 2015: 5.019 million tons → 2016: 5.388 million tons) and industrial waste (7.5%, 2015: 7.172 million tons → 2016: 7.710 million tons) compared to the previous year.
3. 1. 3. 3 Road Sector Emissions
The road sector included emissions from passenger cars and freight cars, and its contributions to the national emissions by pollutant were as follows: NOx (36.3%), SOx (0.1%), PM2.5 (9.7%), VOCs (4.6%), and NH3 (1.7%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, and VOCs increased by 22.6% (2015: 369,585 tons → 2016: 452,995 tons), 10.9% (2015: 209 tons → 2016: 231 tons), 10.6% (2015: 8,817 tons → 2016: 9,748 tons), and 3.1% (2015: 46,145 tons → 2016: 47,561 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while NH3 emissions decreased by 49.7% (2015: 10,078 tons → 2016: 5,071 tons) (Table 6 and Fig. 4).
Table 6.
Changes in emissions and percentage in the road sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
Changes in emissions and percentage in the road sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
| Source sector | Pollutant | Emissions | Change (Emissions) |
Change (Percentage) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | ||||
| Road | |||||
| NH3 | 10,078 | 5,071 | -5,008 | -49.7% | |
Fig. 4.
Emissions in the road sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
These changes in the emissions were made because of fluctuations in the number of recent cars registered and vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) by vehicle type (Table 7). Incidentally, improvements in emissions factors for PM2.5 and NH3 led to marked changes in emissions of the pollutants from each vehicle type.
Table 7.
Changes in the number of registered cars and VKT by vehicle type.
Changes in the number of registered cars and VKT by vehicle type.
| Type of vehicles | Number of cars registered (1,000 units) | VKT (million km) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | Change | 2015 | 2016 | Change | ||
| RVs | 4,547 | 5,088 | 10.6% | 62,720 | 72,848 | 13.9% | |
| Total | 21,069 | 21,888 | 3.7% | 298,887 | 317,086 | 5.7% | |
The contributions of the passenger cars category to the emissions in the road sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (9.1%), SOx (35.4%), PM2.5 (1.5%), VOCs (33.4%), and NH3 (89.8%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, and PM2.5 increased by 13.8% (2015: 36,193 tons → 2016: 41,190 tons), 21.8% (2015: 67 tons → 2016: 82 tons), 80.3% (2015: 81 tons → 2016: 145 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while VOCs and NH3 emissions decreased by 1.2% (2015: 16,071 tons → 2016: 15,877 tons) and 53.8% (2015: 9,863 tons → 2016: 4,554 tons), respectively. This was because the number of passenger cars registered increased by 2.8% (2015: 12.145 million units → 2016: 12.495 million units) and so did the VKT of the vehicles by 7.2% (2015: 142.662 billion km → 2016: 153.686 billion km) compared to the previous year, contributing to the emissions increases.
The contributions of the large freight cars category to the emissions in the road sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (21.9%), SOx (12.5%), PM2.5 (33.4%), VOCs (10.1%), and NH3 (1.3%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 9.8% (2015: 90,323 tons → 2016: 99,203 tons), 16.7% (2015: 25 tons → 2016: 29 tons), 15.5% (2015: 2,822 tons → 2016: 3,260 tons), 18.4% (2015: 4,069 tons → 2016: 4,818 tons), and 126% (2015: 29 tons → 2016: 66 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year. This was due to the fact that the number of large freight cars registered increased by 15.3% (2015: 113,000 units → 2016: 131,000 units) with an increase of 14.6% in the VKT of them (2015: 9.8 billion km → 2016: 11.234 billion km) compared to the previous year.
The contributions of RVs category to the emissions in the road sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (25.8%), SOx (13.5%), PM2.5 (21.8%), VOCs (6.3%), and NH3 (3.0%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 59.1% (2015: 73,506 tons → 2016: 116,938 tons), 16.8% (2015: 27 tons → 2016: 31 tons), 5.7% (2015: 2,008 tons → 2016: 2,123 tons), 26.5% (2015: 2,384 tons → 2016: 3,017 tons), and 177% (2015: 56 tons → 2016: 154 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year. This was due to the fact that the number of RVs registered increased by 10.6% (2015: 4.547 million units → 2016: 5.088 million units) with an increase of 15.7% in the VKT of them (2015: 62.720 billion km → 2016: 72.848 billion km), leading to the increases in the emissions.
3. 1. 3. 4 Non-Road Sector Emissions
The non-road sector consisted of categories including the ships and the construction machineries, and its contributions to the national emissions by pollutant were as follows: NOx (24.8%), SOx (11.5%), PM2.5 (14.3%), VOCs (4.0%), and NH3 (0.04%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 1.8% (2015: 304,376 tons → 2016: 309,986 tons), 5.1% (2015: 39,424 tons → 2016: 41,443 tons), 1.8% (2015: 14,106 tons → 2016: 14,354 tons), 1.3% (2015: 40,311 tons → 2016: 40,816 tons), and 0.7% (2015: 116.5 tons → 2016: 117.3 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year; the ships category including cargo ships and fishing vessels and that of construction machineries including forklifts and excavators were major contributors to the emissions (Table 8 and Fig. 5).
Table 8.
Changes in emissions and percentage in the non-road sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
Changes in emissions and percentage in the non-road sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
| Source sector | Pollutant | Emissions | Change (Emissions) |
Change (Percentage) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | ||||
| Non-road | |||||
| NH3 | 117 | 117 | 1 | 0.7% | |
Fig. 5.
Emissions in the non-road sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
Incidentally, the number of forklifts and excavators registered increased by 4.4% and 2.4%, respectively and working hours of the two increased by 2.4% each; conversely, the number of old machineries registered, relatively large emitters, to which the US Tier 1 emissions standards applied, decreased while that of advanced machineries to which the Tier 4 emissions standards could apply increased, resulting in the changes in the emissions (Table 9).
Table 9.
Changes in the number of registered construction machines and working hours by machine type.
Changes in the number of registered construction machines and working hours by machine type.
| Machine type | Number of machines registered | Working hours (1,000 hr/yr) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | Change | 2015 | 2016 | Change | ||
| Drilling rigs | 5,013 | 5,133 | 2.4% | 3,687 | 3,777 | 2.4% | |
The contributions of the forklifts category to the emissions in the construction machineries category by pollutant were as follows: NOx (37.2%), SOx (34.3%), PM2.5 (40.3%), VOCs (39.5%), and NH3 (33.8%). Emissions of NOx, PM2.5, and VOCs decreased by 3.2% (2015: 44,954 tons → 2016: 43,496 tons), 1.8% (2015: 2,330 tons → 2016: 2,289 tons), and 2.9% (2015: 6,092 tons → 2016: 5,915 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while NH3 emissions decreased by 2.3% (2015: 12.9 tons → 2016: 13.2 tons).
The contributions of the excavators category to the emissions in the construction machineries category by pollutant were as follows: NOx (35.2%), SOx (40.9%), PM2.5 (36.8%), VOCs (31.4%), and NH3 (41.1%). Emissions of NOx, PM2.5, and VOCs decreased by 7.4% (2015: 44,496 tons → 2016: 41,208 tons), 5.9% (2015: 2,223 tons → 2016: 2,092 tons), 8.8% (2015: 5,159 tons → 2016: 4,706 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year; on the other hand, SOx and NH3 emissions increased by 4.5% (2015: 22 tons → 2016: 23 tons) and 2.6% (2015: 15.7 tons → 2016: 16.1 tons) each.
The contributions of the cargo ships category to the emissions in the ships category by pollutant were as follows: NOx (56.6%), SOx (92.6%), PM2.5 (67.2%), VOCs (14.3%), and NH3 (56.0%). Emissions of NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 all increased by 6.7% (2015: 85,768 tons → 2016: 91,539 tons), 2.0% (2015: 36,699 tons → 2016: 37,432 tons), 5.7% (2015: 4,447 tons → 2016: 4,701 tons), 6.8% (2015: 2,970 tons → 2016: 3,171 tons), and 6.7% (2015: 7.6 tons → 2016: 8.1 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year. This was because of the increased number of the ships in and out of ports and higher fuel usage.
The contributions of the fishing vessels category to the emissions in the ships category by pollutant were as follows: NOx (37.7%), SOx (1.2%), PM2.5 (24.5%), VOCs (64.6%), and NH3 (37.9%). Emissions of NOx, PM2.5, and NH3 increased by 4.0% (2015: 58,564 tons → 2016: 60,928 tons), 0.9% (2015: 1,698 tons → 2016: 1,713 tons), and 3.4% (2015: 5.3 tons → 2016: 5.5 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while SOx and VOCs emissions decreased by 5.3% (2015: 519 tons → 2016: 492 tons) and 3.0% (2015: 14,773 tons → 2016: 14,324 tons) each. This was led by an increase in sales of gasoline coupled with decreases both in sales of diesel and in the sulfur content of fuel.
3. 1. 3. 5 Everyday Activities and Other Emission Sources Sector Emissions
Excluding emission sources from the other sectors (Energy, Industry, Road and Non-road) aforementioned, the everyday activities and other emission sources sector consisted of the categories of non-industry, energy transport and storage, solvent use, agriculture, other (area sources), fugitive dust, and biomass burning. Its contributions to the national emissions by pollutant were as follows: NOx (7.6%), SOx (6.7%), PM2.5 (30.6%), VOCs (66.3%), and NH3 (83.4%). Emissions of NOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 increased by 3.3% (2015: 92,003 tons → 2016: 95,050 tons), 0.1% (2015: 30,618 tons → 2016: 30,664 tons), 0.8% (2015: 673,777 tons → 2016: 679,216 tons), and 2.4% (2015: 245,511 tons → 2016: 251,371 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while SOx emissions decreased by 16.4% (2015: 28,815 tons → 2016: 24,092 tons) (Table 10 and Fig. 6).
Table 10.
Changes in emissions and percentage in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
Changes in emissions and percentage in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector by pollutant. (units: tons/year)
| Source sector | Pollutant | Emissions | Change (Emissions) |
Change (Percentage) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2016 | ||||
| Everyday activities and other emission sources |
|||||
| NH3 | 245,511 | 251,371 | 5,860 | 2.4% | |
Fig. 6.
Emissions in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector by pollutant in 2015 and 2016.
The non-industry category included the categories of commercial, institutional, residential, agricultural and livestock facilities whose emissions were from fuel combustion for heating and other purposes. The non-industry category’s contributions to the everyday activities and other emission sources sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (90.3%), SOx (99.7%), PM2.5 (3.2%), VOCs (0.4%), and NH3 (0.6%). Emissions of NOx, VOCs, and NH3 increased by 3.5% (2015: 82,948 tons → 2016: 85,824 tons), 4.5% (2015: 2,622 tons → 2016: 2,740 tons), and 4.7% (2015: 1,351 tons → 2016: 1,415 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year while SOx and PM2.5 emissions decreased by 16.4% (2015: 28,736 tons → 2016: 24,015 tons) and 4.6% (2015: 1,025 tons → 2016: 978 tons). Increased NOx emissions were caused by a 6.9% increase (2015: 9.538 billion m3 → 2016: 10.195 billion m3) in higher LNG consumption by commercial, institutional and residential facilities; SOx emissions were reduced since usage of high sulfur fuel oil (HSFO, 4% B-C oil) decreased by 35.5% (2015: 213,000 kL → 2016: 137,000 kL) compared to the previous year.
The solvent use category (other solvent use, painting facilities, etc.) accounted for 82.2% of VOCs emissions in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector with a 0.5% increase (2015: 555,359 tons → 2016: 558,004 tons), which was found to be due to a 1.2% increase of supply of paints (2015: 808,000 kL → 2016: 818,057 kL) compared to the previous year.
Agriculture (fertilizer use, livestock excrement management, etc.) accounted for 94.3% of NH3 emissions in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector and saw a 2.5% increase (2015: 231,263 tons → 2016: 237,017 tons) from a year earlier; this was found to be a result of an increase of 2.6% in the number of livestock such as cattle and pigs (2015: 189.417 million animals → 2016: 194.318 million animals) compared to the previous year.
The fugitive dust category included paved road dust, or resuspended dust from vehicles running on the roads, and dust emitted into the air from industrial processes, not from certain exhaust systems in industries. Fugitive dust accounted for 56.4% of PM2.5 emissions in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector, increasing by 0.2% (2015: 17,248 tons → 2016: 17,286 tons) compared to the previous year. Paved road dust, which accounted for 41% of fugitive dust emissions, saw a 6.2% increase in PM2.5 emissions (2015: 6,671 tons → 2016: 7,087 tons) compared to the previous year. This was because of increases both in the number of cars registered and in the VKT in the road transport including passenger cars with the number of rain days with 0.254 mm or more (US EPA) decreasing by 3.6% (2015: 130 days → 2016: 125 days) compared to the previous year.
The biomass burning category included the category of burning in everyday life such as open burning of municipal solid waste, and its contributions to emissions in the everyday activities and other emission sources sector by pollutant were as follows: NOx (9.5%), PM2.5 (39.5%), and VOCs (12.9%). Emissions of NOx, PM2.5, and VOCs increased by 2.0% (2015: 8,883 tons → 2016: 9,059 tons), 0.5% (2015: 12,060 tons → 2016: 12,124 tons), and 1.9% (2015: 86,012 tons → 2016: 87,687 tons), respectively, compared to the previous year. This was because the cultivation area for industrial crops (sesame, perilla, groundnut, etc.) expanded by 8.3% (2015: 72,298 ha → 2016: 78,276 ha) compared to the previous year, and the amount of incineration consequently increased.
4. CONCLUSION
Emissions in the Republic of Korea in 2016 were estimated by using the Clean Air Policy Support System (CAPSS), and the total emissions by pollutant were as follows: CO (795,044 tons), NOx (1,248,309 tons), SOx (358,951 tons), TSP (611,539 tons), PM10 (233,085 tons), PM2.5 (100,247 tons), BC (16,401 tons), VOCs 1,024,029 (tons), and NH3 (301,301). Overall, most pollutants showed increased emissions in 2016 compared to 2015, except for PM10. The percentage increases were 0.3% (CO), 7.8% (NOx), 1.9% (SOx), 1.2% (TSP), 1.5% (PM2.5), 2.9% (BC), 1.3% (VOCs), and 1.4% (NH3) with a 0.04% decrease in PM10 emissions; the national emissions in 2016 by sector were as estimated below.
Emissions in the energy sector (public/private power generation, district production plants, etc.), whose main pollutants were NOx, SOx, VOCs, and NH3 contributing to primary and secondary PM2.5 formation, were 137,744 tons for NOx, 78,779 tons for SOx, 3,230 tons for PM2.5, 7,706 tons VOCs, 1,382 tons for NH3, accounting for 11.0%, 21.9%, 3.2%, 0.8%, and 0.5% of the national emissions, respectively. Emissions in the industry sector (manufacturing industry, industrial processes, waste, etc.) were 252,534 tons for NOx, 214,406 tons for SOx, 42,251 tons for PM2.5, 248,730 tons for VOCs, and 43,360 tons for NH3, accounting for 20.2%, 59.7%, 42.1%, 24.3%, and 14.4% of the national emissions, respectively. Emissions in the road sector (passenger cars, freight cars, etc.) were 452,995 tons for NOx, 231 tons for SOx, 9,748 tons for PM2.5, 47,561 tons for VOCs, and 5,071 tons for NH3, accounting for 36.3%, 0.1%, 9.7%, 4.6%, and 1.7% of the national emissions, respectively. Emissions in the non-road sector (ships, construction machineries, etc.) were 309,986 tons for NOx, 41,443 tons for SOx, 14,354 tons for PM2.5, 40,816 tons VOCs, and 117 tons for NH3, accounting for 24.8%, 11.5%, 14.3%, 4.0%, and 0.04% of the national emissions, respectively. Emissions in the everyday activities and other emission source sector (non-industry, biomass burning, etc.) were 95,050 tons for NOx, 24,092 tons for SOx, 30,664 tons for PM2.5, 679,216 tons for VOCs, and 251,371 tons for NH3, accounting for 7.6%, 6.7%, 30.6%, 66.3%, and 83.4% of the national emissions, respectively.
The NAIR is conducting various studies in order to improve the reliability of national air pollutant emissions data by identifying exact air pollutant emission sources and resolving the uncertainty of emission statistics. For example, the NAIR is currently carrying out research to improve the existing emission methodologies for estimating emissions from enhancing allocation methods for emissions from area emission sources such as industrial sites, developing measurement-based emission factors to updating antiquated emission factors. Other studies are also being conducted to identify possible missing emissions sources such as ground support equipment (GSE) at airports, cargo handling equipment (CHE) at ports, and the defense sector.
Also, the NAIR is developing a system to evaluate emissions data from wider perspectives. This is because there are limited ways to assess the reliability of emissions data other than those directly measured by the Tele-Monitoring System (TMS) on the smokestack. More recently, in a bid to increase the reliability of emissions data, we are introducing the Community Multiscale Air Quality Modeling (CMAQ) system, a 3-dimentional chemistry transport model, in which emissions data are entered to simulate the concentrations of pollutants, which are then to be compared with those measured from the surface and satellites.
The data we calculate are used as official national emissions data for the establishment, implementation, and assessment of national atmospheric environment policy to improve air quality. As critical and necessary materials, the data are also utilized on a wide range of studies on policies such as customized regional particulate matter reduction measures. Thus, it is crucial to estimate highly reliable national emissions by enhancing the emissions factors and inventory and to establish a scientific emissions testing system by using air quality modeling and satellite data.
References
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SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Trends in CO emissions (units: tons/year)
2. Trends in NOx emissions (units: tons/year)
3. Trends in SOx emissions (units: tons/year)
4. Trends in TSP emissions (units: tons/year)
5. Trends in PM10 emissions (units: tons/year)
6. Trends in PM2.5 emissions (units: tons/year)
7. Trends in Black Carbon emissions (units: tons/year)
8. Trends in VOCs emissions (units: tons/year)
9. Trends in NH3 emissions (units: tons/year)
1. Trends in CO emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 260,903 | 255,206 | 231,917 | 232,455 | 233,066 | 0.3% | |
| Total | 964,490 | 951,888 | 826,370 | 792,776 | 795,044 | 0.4% | |
2. Trends in NOx emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 9,177 | 9,110 | 8,765 | 8,883 | 9,059 | 2.0% | |
| Total | 1,084,383 | 1,099,723 | 1,144,508 | 1,157,728 | 1,248,309 | 7.8% | |
3. Trends in SOx emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 153 | 148 | 80 | 79 | 78 | -1.7% | |
| Total | 417,798 | 404,808 | 343,241 | 352,292 | 358,951 | 4.6% | |
4. Trends in TSP emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 33,762 | 32,550 | 30,323 | 30,183 | 30,618 | 1.4% | |
| Total | 757,456 | 767,743 | 573,460 | 604,243 | 611,539 | 1.2% | |
5. Trends in PM10 emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 16,702 | 15,663 | 14,583 | 14,552 | 14,623 | 0.5% | |
| Total | 251,804 | 246,168 | 211,172 | 233,177 | 233,085 | -0.04% | |
6. Trends in PM2.5 emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 13,659 | 12,681 | 12,073 | 12,060 | 12,124 | 0.5% | |
| Total | 108,114 | 106,610 | 91,460 | 98,806 | 100,247 | 1.5% | |
7. Trends in Black Carbon emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||
| Subtotal | 2,261 | 2,255 | 2,274 | 0.8% | |
| Total | 15,795 | 15,934 | 16,401 | 2.9% | |
8. Trends in VOCs emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 104,930 | 101,487 | 86,454 | 86,012 | 87,687 | 1.9% | |
| Total | 1,016,252 | 1,015,059 | 992,256 | 1,010,771 | 1,024,029 | 1.9% | |
9. Trends in NH3 emissions (units: tons/year)
| Emission source category | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | Change (2016-2015) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biomass burning |
|||||||
| Subtotal | 20 | 20 | 16 | 15 | 15 | -0.1% | |
| Total | 303,483 | 292,993 | 292,517 | 297,167 | 301,301 | 1.4% | |
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| The Editorial Office : Asian Association for Atmospheric Environment AJAE (Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment) Homepage : http://www.asianjae.org Submission platform : http://mc03.manuscriptcentral.com/ajae KOSAE (Korean Society for Atmospheric Environment) 124, Sajik-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, Korea Tel : +82-2-387-1400, 0242 / FAX : +82-2-387-1881 E-mail : webmaster@kosae.or.kr / Homepage : http://www.kosae.or.kr CSES•CSAE (Association of Atmospheric Environment of Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences) No. 54, Hongnian Village, Haidian District, Beijing, China Tel : +86-10-82211021 E-mail : cses@chinacses.org / Homepage : http://www.chinacses.org JSAE (Japan Society for Atmospheric Environment) 358-5, Yamabuki-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-0801, Japan Tel : +81-3-6824-9392 / FAX : +81-3-5227-8631 E-mail : jsae-post@bunken.co.jp / Homepage : http://www.jsae-net.org |
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Copyright ⓒ 2020 Asian Association for Atmospheric Environment This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. |
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