3. 1 Air Pollutant Emissions
In the 2017 NEI, the nationwide emissions of air pollutants comprised 817,420 tons of CO; 1,189,800 tons of NOx, 315,530 tons of SOx; 592,582 tons of TSP; 218,476 tons of PM10; 91,731 tons of PM2.5; 15,555 tons of BC; 1,047,585 tons of VOCs; and 308,298 tons of NH3, as shown in Table 1 (NAIR, 2020b).
Table 1.
2017 emissions and contributions of air pollutants by emission source category.
(unit: metric tons/year)
Source category |
CO |
NOx |
SOx |
TSP |
PM10 |
PM2.5 |
BC |
VOC |
NH3 |
Total |
817,420 |
1,189,800 |
315,530 |
592,582 |
218,476 |
91,731 |
15,555 |
1,047,585 |
308,398 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
Energy production |
59,304 |
114,192 |
77,574 |
4,109 |
3,829 |
3,162 |
319 |
7,753 |
1,330 |
7.3% |
9.6% |
24.6% |
0.7% |
1.8% |
3.4% |
2.0% |
0.7% |
0.4% |
Non-industry |
62,716 |
86,803 |
20,714 |
1,572 |
1,374 |
935 |
167 |
2,830 |
1,429 |
7.7% |
7.3% |
6.6% |
0.3% |
0.6% |
1.0% |
1.1% |
0.3% |
0.5% |
Manufacturing industry |
18,263 |
169,790 |
72,327 |
95,815 |
55,872 |
28,501 |
620 |
3,199 |
688 |
2.2% |
14.3% |
22.9% |
16.2% |
25.6% |
31.1% |
4.0% |
0.3% |
0.2% |
Industrial processes |
27,750 |
53,618 |
106,730 |
12,096 |
6,759 |
5,186 |
17 |
188,324 |
42,977 |
3.4% |
4.5% |
33.8% |
2.0% |
3.1% |
5.7% |
0.1% |
18.0% |
13.9% |
Energy transport and storage |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
30,695 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2.9% |
|
Solvent use |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
563,648 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
53,8% |
|
Road transport |
237,152 |
434,038 |
277 |
9,473 |
9,473 |
8,715 |
5,315 |
45,920 |
4,437 |
29.0% |
36.5% |
0.1% |
1.6% |
4.3% |
9.5% |
34.2% |
4.4% |
1.4% |
Non-road transport |
176,455 |
309,309 |
35,710 |
16,198 |
16,194 |
15,002 |
6,749 |
59,407 |
120 |
21.6% |
26.0% |
11.3% |
2.7% |
7.4% |
16.4% |
43.4% |
5.7% |
0.04% |
Waste |
2,051 |
12,994 |
2,120 |
377 |
274 |
234 |
4 |
58,405 |
22 |
0.3% |
1.1% |
0.7% |
0.1% |
0.1% |
0.3% |
0.02% |
5.6% |
0.01% |
Agriculture |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
244,335 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
79.3% |
Others |
8,656 |
214 |
|
679 |
431 |
388 |
24 |
901 |
12,945 |
1.1% |
0.02% |
|
0.1% |
0.2% |
0.4% |
0.2% |
0.1% |
4.2% |
Fugitive dust |
|
|
|
422,420 |
109,932 |
17,690 |
120 |
|
|
|
|
|
71.3% |
50.3% |
19.3% |
0.8% |
|
|
Biomass burning |
225,073 |
8,841 |
77 |
29,843 |
14,338 |
11,919 |
2,221 |
86,500 |
15 |
27.5% |
0.7% |
0.02% |
5.0% |
6.6% |
13.0% |
14.3% |
8.3% |
0.00% |
*BC: BC (Black Carbon) as EC (Elemental Carbon)
The emission contributions of different emission source categories by pollutant were as follows: road transport (29.0%), biomass burning (27.5%), and non-road transport (21.6%) for CO; road transport (36.5%), non-road transport (26.0%), and manufacturing industry (14.3%) for NOx; industrial process (33.8%), energy production (24.6%), and manufacturing industry (22.9%) for SOx; fugitive dust (71.3%) and manufacturing industry (16.2%) for TSP; fugitive dust (50.3%) and manufacturing industry (25.6%) for PM10; manufacturing industry (31.1%), fugitive dust (19.3%), and non-road transport (16.4%) for PM2.5; non-road transport (43.4%) and road transport (34.2%) for BC; solvent use (53.8%) and manufacturing industry (18.0%) for VOCs; and agriculture (79.3%) and industrial process (13.9%) for NH3 (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
2017 emission contributions of different emission source categories by pollutant.
3. 2 Analysis on Changes in Emissions Compared with the Previous Year
This study analyzed the contributions of primary PM2.5 and four of its precursors (NOx, SOx, VOCs, and NH3) to the 2017 NEI based on an emission source classification, which is presented in Table 2. The table shows that thirteen first-level categories of emission sources were grouped into five sectors (energy, industry, road, non-road, everyday activities and others). In addition, the major causes that contribute to changes in emissions from 2016 to 2017 were analyzed and described. Further details on emissions of air pollutants by emission source category can be found in Appendix 1.
Table 2.
Emission source classification.
Classification |
Source category |
Energy
(oil refinery not included) |
Energy production
(public power generation, private power generation, and district heating) |
Industry
(oil refinery included) |
Manufacturing industry |
Industrial processes |
Waste |
Oil refinery |
Road |
Road transport
(passenger cars, vans, buses, freight cars, special cars, RVs, and two-wheeled vehicles) |
Non-road |
Non-road transport
(railroads, ships, agricultural machinery,and construction machinery) |
Everyday activities and others |
Non-industry |
Energy transport and storage |
Solvent use |
Agriculture |
Others |
Fugitive dust |
Biomass burning |
3. 2. 1 Energy Sector Emissions
The contributions of the energy sector to the 2017 NEI, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (8.9%), SOx (20.7%), PM2.5 (3.4%), VOCs (0.7%), and NH3 (0.4%). More specifically, NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions decreased by 23.3% (32,099 tons), 17.2% (13,513 tons), 2.9% (93 tons), 2.9% (221 tons), and 14.7% (204 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
Emissions from the energy sector by pollutant in 2016 and 2017.
The contributions of the public power generation category to the emissions from the energy sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (73.2%), SOx (90.2%), PM2.5 (78.8%), VOCs (57.8%), and NH3 (37.3%). Specifically, NOx, SOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions from public power generation decreased by 29.6% (32,426 tons), 17.6% (12,597 tons), 4.7% (123 tons), 10.5% (506 tons), and 37.8% (268 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year. Although there were increases in coal consumption (e.g bituminous coal) compared with the previous year, emissions of those pollutants decreased because consumption of oil (e.g. Bunker C oil) and LNG decreased by 66.9% (1.93 million kL) and 20.9% (1.676 billion m3), respectively, and environmental facilities operated by places of business were upgraded. NOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions from private power generation increased by 0.2% (53 tons), 1.7% (9 tons), 6.3% (143 tons), and 5.8% (30 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year while SOx emissions decreased by 11.3% (662 tons).
3. 2. 2 Industry Sector Emissions
Emissions from the industry sector were estimated by totaling the emissions from the manufacturing industry, industrial processes, waste, and oil refinery categories. Overall, the contributions of the industry sector to the 2017 NEI, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (20.6%), SOx (61.3%), PM2.5 (37.0%), VOCs (23.9%), and NH3 (14.2%). NOx, SOx, and PM2.5 emissions decreased by 3.0% (7,585 tons), 9.8% (20,921 tons), and 19.7% (8,305 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while VOCs and NH3 emissions increased by 0.6% (1,468 tons) and 1.1% (479 tons), respectively (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Emissions from the industry sector by pollutant in 2016 and 2017.
The contributions of the manufacturing industry category to the emissions from the industry sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (69.3%), SOx (37.4%), PM2.5 (84.0%), VOCs (1.3%), and NH3 (1.6%). NOx, SOx, PM2.5, and VOCs emissions decreased by 3.2% (5,541 tons), 16.5% (14,266 tons), 22.5% (8,284 tons), and 4.3% (143 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while NH3 emissions increased by 2.4% (16 tons). Overall emissions decreased mainly because coal consumption (e.g. bituminous coal) decreased by 12.0% (1.707 million tons) compared with the previous year.
The contributions of the industrial processes category to the emissions from the industry sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (21.9%), SOx (55.2%), PM2.5 (15.3%), VOCs (75.3%), and NH3 (98.0%). NOx, SOx, and PM2.5 emissions decreased by 4.1% (2,314 tons), 5.3% (6,004 tons), and 0.1% (6 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while VOCs and NH3 emissions increased by 1.2% (2,220 tons) and 1.1% (488 tons), respectively. The overall emissions in this sector declined mainly because emissions from some large oil refineries and steel producers, which are measured by a TMS, decreased despite a 1.9% increase (2.946 million kL) in crude oil consumption by the petroleum industry and a 0.1% increase (86,000 tons) in the output of sintered products in the iron and steel industry.
The contributions of the waste category to the emissions from the industry sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (5.3%), SOx (1.1%), PM2.5 (0.7%), VOCs (23.3%), and NH3 (0.1%). NOx, SOx, PM2.5, and VOCs emissions decreased by 4.2% (575 tons), 1.9% (41 tons), 7.2% (18 tons), and 1.0% (583 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, and there was a 0.3% increase in NH3 emissions (0.1 tons). The overall decline in the waste category was because the amounts of incinerated municipal solid waste and industrial waste slightly decreased, by 5.5% (296,000 tons) and 0.3% (20,000 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year.
3. 2. 3 Road Sector Emissions
The contributions of the road sector to the 2017 NEI, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (36.5%), SOx (0.1%), PM2.5 (9.5%), VOCs (4.4%), and NH3 (1.4%). NOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions decreased by 4.2% (18,956 tons), 10.6% (1,033 tons), 3.5% (1,641 tons), and 12.5% (634 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while there was a 19.8% increase in SOx emissions (46 tons). The contributions of the freight cars and RVs categories to the emissions from the road sector were larger than those of the other types of vehicles (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4.
Emissions from the road sector by pollutant in 2016 and 2017.
The overall decline in emissions, despite an increase in the number of car registrations and VKT, was mainly due to the replacement of old cars that produce relatively large amounts of air pollutants with new cars, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3.
Changes in the number of car registrations and VKT by vehicle type.
Type of vehicles |
Number of car registrations (1,000 units) |
VKT (million km) |
2016 |
2017 |
Change |
2016 |
2017 |
Change |
Passenger cars |
12,495 |
12,965 |
3.8% |
153,686 |
155,439 |
1.1% |
Taxis |
247 |
246 |
-0.4% |
10,805 |
10,965 |
1.5% |
Vans |
765 |
746 |
-2.5% |
7,992 |
7,201 |
-9.9% |
Buses |
76 |
76 |
-0.6% |
7,538 |
7,479 |
-0.8% |
Freight cars |
3,192 |
3,262 |
2.2% |
63,578 |
63,924 |
0.5% |
Special cars |
24 |
23 |
-2.2% |
640 |
572 |
-10.7% |
RVs |
5,088 |
5,297 |
4.1% |
72,848 |
75,801 |
4.1% |
Total |
21,888 |
22,615 |
3.3% |
317,086 |
321,380 |
1.4% |
3. 2. 4 Non-Road Sector Emissions
The contributions of the non-road sector to the 2017 NEI, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (26.0%), SOx (11.3%), PM2.5 (16.4%), VOCs (5.7%), and NH3 (0.04%). NOx and SOx emissions decreased by 0.2% (677 tons) and 13.8% (5,732 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, whereas PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions increased by 4.5% (648 tons), 45.6% (18,592 tons), and 2.4% (3 tons), respectively (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5.
Emissions from the non-road sector by pollutant in 2016 and 2017.
The contributions of the ship category to the emissions from the non-road sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (52.5%), SOx (96.9%), PM2.5 (51.5%), VOCs (69.1%), and NH3 (12.3%). NOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions increased by 0.4% (688 tons), 10.5% (735 tons), 85.1% (18,879 tons), and 2.2% (0.3 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while there was a 14.4% decline in SOx emissions (5,819 tons). Since the methodology of obtaining activity data was changed (i.e. the agency in charge of obtaining data on leisure boats was changed), the number of ship registrations increased, which, in turn, contributed to increases in emissions from the non-road sector, while the decrease in SOx emissions resulted from an 11.4% decrease (41,882 kL) from the previous year in the use of oil on which cargo ships operate (e.g. Bunker C oil) (Table 4).
Table 4.
Changes in the number of leisure boat registrations.
|
2016 |
2017 |
Change (registrations) |
Change (%) |
Motorboats |
3,071 |
16,120 |
13,049 |
425 % |
Inflatable boats |
930 |
2,689 |
1,759 |
189 % |
Power yachts |
152 |
698 |
546 |
359 % |
Personal watercrafts (PWCs) |
593 |
5,464 |
4,871 |
821 % |
Total |
4,746 |
24,971 |
20,225 |
426 % |
The contributions of the construction machinery category to the emissions from the non-road sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (36.9%), SOx (0.2%), PM2.5 (37.3%), VOCs (24.7%), and NH3 (34.3%). NOx, PM2.5, and VOCs emissions decreased by 2.5% (2,881 tons), 1.4% (80 tons), and 2.3% (339 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while SOx and NH3 emissions increased by 28.2% (16 tons) and 5.3% (2.1 tons), respectively. Although the number of registered construction machinery increased by 4.9% (18,000 units), the retrofitting of old construction machinery mainly contributed to these decreases in emissions.
3. 2. 5 Everyday Activities and Others Sector Emissions
The everyday activities and others sector consisted of the non-industry, energy transport and storage, solvent use, agriculture, other (area sources), fugitive dust, and biomass burning categories. The contributions of this sector to the 2017 NEI, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (8.1%), SOx (6.6%), PM2.5 (33.7%), VOCs (65.3%), and NH3 (83.9%). NOx, PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 emissions increased by 0.9% (808 tons), 0.9% (268 tons), 0.8% (5,358 tons), and 2.9% (7,353 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while SOx decreased by 13.7% (3,301 tons), as shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6.
Emissions from the everyday activities and others sector by pollutant in 2016 and 2017.
The non-industry category included fuel combustion for heating and other purposes in residential, commercial, institutional, agricultural, and livestock facilities. The contributions of the non-industry category to the emissions from the everyday activities and others sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (90.6%), SOx (99.6%), PM2.5 (3.0%), VOCs (0.4%), and NH3 (0.6%). NOx, VOCs, and NH3 emissions increased by 1.1% (979 tons), 3.3% (90 tons), and 1.0% (14 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year, while SOx and PM2.5 emissions decreased by 13.7% (3,300 tons) and 4.4% (43 tons), respectively. Increased NOx emissions were caused by a 5.2% increase (672 million m3) in LNG consumption by residential, commercial, and institutional facilities, while SOx emissions decreased because the consumption of oil (e.g. Bunker C oil) and anthracite coal decreased by 2.2% (236,000 kL) and 14.0% (176,000 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year.
The solvent use category (e.g. painting facilities and other solvent use) was responsible for 82.3% of the VOCs emissions from the everyday activities and others sector. Emissions from this category increased by 1.0% (5,644 tons) compared with the previous year, mainly due to an increase in the paint thinner consumption by coating facilities.
The agriculture category (e.g. fertilizer use and livestock manure management) accounted for 94.4% of NH3 emissions in the everyday activities and others sector. There was a 3.1% increase in NH3 emissions (7,318 tons) from the previous year due to a 0.4% increase (790,000 animals) in the number of livestock (e.g. cattle and pigs) from the previous year.
The fugitive dust category included road dust from vehicles running on the road and dust from construction sites and vacant lands without dust outlets. Fugitive dust accounted for 57.2% of the PM2.5 emissions from the everyday activities and others sector, which was an increase of 2.3% (403 tons) from the previous year. The paved roads category (one of its second-level categories), which accounted for 42.5% of fugitive dust emissions, showed a 6.0% increase in PM2.5 emissions (428 tons) from the previous year. Although there were 12 fewer days with at least 0.254 mm of precipitation, one of the major factors that contribute to changes in the fugitive dust category (US EPA, 2011), than in the previous year, the overall fugitive dust emissions increased because total VKT in Korea increased by 1.4% (4.294 billion km) compared with the previous year.
The biomass burning category included burning in everyday life, such as agricultural residue incineration, and the contributions of this category to emissions from the everyday activities and others sector, by pollutant, were as follows: NOx (9.2%), PM2.5 (38.5%), and VOCs (12.6%). NOx, PM2.5, and VOCs emissions decreased by 2.4% (217 tons), 1.7% (205 tons), and 1.4% (1,188 tons), respectively, compared with the previous year. This was because the cultivation area for fruits (e.g. pears and apples) and specialty crops (e.g. sesame and peanuts) declined by 0.5% (742 ha), compared with the previous year, thereby decreasing the amount of incineration.
3. 3 Air Pollutant Emissions by Region
Data on the 2017 NEI from 17 regions (first-tier administrative divisions3) are shown in Table 5 and Fig. 7. Gyeonggi-do emitted the largest proportions of CO, NOx , and VOCs emissions in Korea, at 15.8% (128,925 tons), 15.5% (184,239 tons), and 18.3% (191,840 tons), respectively. NOx emissions in Gyeonggi-do decreased by 19,416 tons compared with the previous year, mainly due to decreased emissions by the construction machinery category, which, in turn, was attributed to reductions in the VKT of freight cars and in building construction areas. Chungcheongnam-do emitted the largest proportions of SOx and NH3, at 22.2% (69,905 tons) and 17.1% (52,578 tons), respectively. SOx emissions in Chungcheongnam-do declined by 14.6% (11,938 tons), mainly because of a reduction in emissions measured using a TMS as a result of strengthened regulations on air pollution for power generation facilities. Gyeongsangbuk-do generated the largest proportions of TSP, PM10, and PM2.5, at 16.5% (97,910 tons), 18.6% (40,586 tons), and 21.5% (19,738 tons), respectively. PM2.5 emissions in Gyeongsangbuk-do decreased by 12.9% (2,932 tons) compared with the previous year, due to a reduction in the consumption of anthracite coal used for steel production.
Table 5.
Air pollutant emissions by region.
(unit: metric tons/year)
Region and Sea |
CO |
NOx |
SOx |
TSP |
PM10 |
PM2.5 |
BC |
VOC |
NH3 |
Total |
817,420 |
1,189,800 |
315,530 |
592,582 |
218,476 |
91,731 |
15,555 |
1,047,585 |
308,298 |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
Seoul |
56,994 |
77,096 |
1,493 |
24,904 |
10,553 |
2,926 |
977 |
66,948 |
3,804 |
7.0% |
6.5% |
0.5% |
4.2% |
4.8% |
3.2% |
6.3% |
6.4% |
1.2% |
Busan |
26,433 |
51,870 |
9,526 |
16,667 |
6,958 |
2,617 |
584 |
42,945 |
1,686 |
3.2% |
4.4% |
3.0% |
2.8% |
3.2% |
2.9% |
3.8% |
4.1% |
0.5% |
Daegu |
18,335 |
27,198 |
3,489 |
10,056 |
3,696 |
1,267 |
300 |
31,490 |
1,714 |
2.2% |
2.3% |
1.1% |
1.7% |
1.7% |
1.4% |
1.9% |
3.0% |
0.6% |
Incheon |
47,228 |
61,522 |
13,302 |
25,501 |
9,676 |
3,131 |
765 |
56,110 |
7,461 |
5.8% |
5.2% |
4.2% |
4.3% |
4.4% |
3.4% |
4.9% |
5.4% |
2.4% |
Gwangju |
9,371 |
13,864 |
222 |
5,602 |
2,054 |
645 |
204 |
17,184 |
937 |
1.1% |
1.2% |
0.1% |
0.9% |
0.9% |
0.7% |
1.3% |
1.6% |
0.3% |
Daejeon |
11,307 |
15,694 |
702 |
4,897 |
1,702 |
619 |
204 |
24,861 |
796 |
1.4% |
1.3% |
0.2% |
0.8% |
0.8% |
0.7% |
1.3% |
2.4% |
0.3% |
Ulsan |
31,218 |
48,630 |
46,018 |
8,846 |
4,022 |
2,229 |
322 |
93,686 |
15,182 |
3.8% |
4.1% |
14.6% |
1.5% |
1.8% |
2.4% |
2.1% |
8.9% |
4.9% |
Sejong |
5,087 |
5,556 |
84 |
2,559 |
1,113 |
368 |
133 |
5,796 |
2,821 |
0.6% |
0.5% |
0.0% |
0.4% |
0.5% |
0.4% |
0.9% |
0.6% |
0.9% |
Gyeonggi-do |
128,925 |
184,239 |
10,011 |
83,410 |
31,409 |
10,386 |
3,121 |
191,840 |
46,879 |
15.8% |
15.5% |
3.2% |
14.1% |
14.4% |
11.3% |
20.1% |
18.3% |
15.2% |
Gangwon-do |
50,486 |
86,041 |
14,124 |
36,655 |
9,686 |
4,114 |
784 |
28,366 |
13,804 |
6.2% |
7.2% |
4.5% |
6.2% |
4.4% |
4.5% |
5.0% |
2.7% |
4.5% |
Chungcheongbuk-do |
45,204 |
67,614 |
8,532 |
31,892 |
9,588 |
3,733 |
896 |
41,714 |
16,388 |
5.5% |
5.7% |
2.7% |
5.4% |
4.4% |
4.1% |
5.8% |
4.0% |
5.3% |
Chungcheongnam-do |
67,215 |
112,876 |
69,905 |
76,527 |
33,243 |
16,021 |
1,306 |
77,362 |
52,578 |
8.2% |
9.5% |
22.2% |
12.9% |
15.2% |
17.5% |
8.4% |
7.4% |
17.1% |
Jeollabuk-do |
45,930 |
39,672 |
5,526 |
39,676 |
10,265 |
3,537 |
818 |
71,182 |
32,742 |
5.6% |
3.3% |
1.8% |
6.7% |
4.7% |
3.9% |
5.3% |
6.8% |
10.6% |
Jeollanam-do |
67,863 |
103,750 |
56,844 |
66,103 |
24,593 |
11,272 |
1,130 |
90,720 |
41,491 |
8.3% |
8.7% |
18.0% |
11.2% |
11.3% |
12.3% |
7.3% |
8.7% |
13.5% |
Gyeongsangbuk-do |
95,299 |
102,251 |
35,573 |
97,910 |
40,586 |
19,738 |
2,046 |
86,670 |
36,948 |
11.7% |
8.6% |
11.3% |
16.5% |
18.6% |
21.5% |
13.2% |
8.3% |
12.0% |
Gyeongsangnam-do |
52,202 |
84,338 |
26,860 |
48,163 |
12,503 |
4,937 |
1,161 |
96,277 |
25,370 |
6.4% |
7.1% |
8.5% |
8.1% |
5.7% |
5.4% |
7.5% |
9.2% |
8.2% |
Jeju-do |
11,710 |
17,037 |
2,044 |
9,856 |
3,469 |
1,054 |
234 |
9,190 |
7,688 |
1.4% |
1.4% |
0.6% |
1.7% |
1.6% |
1.1% |
1.5% |
0.9% |
2.5% |
Sea* |
46,610 |
90,554 |
11,275 |
3,361 |
3,361 |
3,138 |
568 |
15,245 |
8 |
5.7% |
7.6% |
3.6% |
0.6% |
1.5% |
3.4% |
3.6% |
1.5% |
0.0% |
*Sea: air pollutant emissions from maritime transport such as ships and fishing boats
Fig. 7.
Air pollutant emissions per area by pollutant and region (unit: ton/km2).